A Primer in Chinese Buddhist Writings

Translated by Zhu Fonian.

People lived to the age of eighty thousand.

Kāśyapabuddha sat beneath the nyagrodha tree.

Śikhinbuddha had two disciples

My father's name was Pure Rice ( Skt. Śuddhodana).

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus...

(we only know bhikṣu is plural from context)

This is the constant law.

Thus have I heard.

The bhikṣus responded...

(You can also translated as "All of the bhikṣus responded," but in many cases the 諸 simply indicates plural.)

Her insight increases.

(Unless you wish to indicate ambiguity, there is no need to place the subject [here: “Her”] in brackets).

When the Buddha was in the Flower Copse Cave in the Jeta Grove in Śrāvastī, he was together with an assembly of one thousand two-hundred fifty great bhikṣus.

(It is not clear if “great” modifies the monks or the assembly. In other words, this could also be translated as “... a great assembly of one thousand two-hundred fifty bhikṣus.)

The exalted one is most remarkable. His divine powers are far reaching, his authority expansive.

When the buddhas enter nirvana, they sever all of the afflictions and dispense with frivolous discourse.

The morality of a buddha is like this, the Dharma of a buddha is like this, and the insight of a buddha is like this.

The World-Honored-One was in a quiet place. His celestial ear was clear. [And so] he heard the bhikṣus talking in this way.

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus "Listen carefully. Listen carefully. Think well on this.”

Kāśyapabuddha sat beneath the nyagrodha tree and acheived the most correct awakening.

Once, the Buddha was in the Flower-Copse Cave in the Jeta Grove in the kingdom of Śrāvastī.

The Buddha at that time said in verse...

At that time, the World-Honored-One was in a quiet place.

At that time, the bhikṣus listened, receiving the teachings. (or, perhaps, "received instruction and listened").

In the past, countless buddhas entered nirvana, cut off all afflictions and dispensed with frivolous discourse.

Thirty-one kalpas ago, in the past, there was a buddha whose name was Śikhin, thus come and 'most true' (Skt. arhat).

Having heard the bhikṣus discuss in this manner, he arose from his seat.

At that time, the sooth-sayers addressed the king, saying...

After begging for food, the bhikṣus assembled in the Flower Copse Hall.

The prince after this shaved off his hair and beard.

When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was in his mother's womb, he concentrated his thoughts, without distraction.

The World-Honored-One announced to the bhikṣus: "I now wish to use my knowledge of past lives to speak of things related to buddhas of the past. Do you wish to hear them?"

All of the dark places were made light.

(Lit. Of the dark places, none did not receive light).

Innumerable Buddhas of the past entered into nirvana, cut off the various afflictions and eliminated frivolous discourse.

The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita into his mother's womb where he was concentrated in thought, without distraction. His mother was serene, without any anxiety.

Four celestial beings, holding halberds and spears, attended on him and protected him so that neither human nor non-human could molest him. This is the constant law.

The hubbub of human society does not suit me.

(lit. ...is not for me appropriate).

"Your majesty, today you will give birth to a holy son. Do not worry. This is the standard law.”

"Do not allow a multitude of beings to fall into other paths.”

Not long after he had gone...

At that time, the bhikṣus answered in full, explaining what had happened.

(lit. completely with the thing answered)

"I now wish to use my knowledge of past lives to speak of things related to buddhas of the past. Do you wish to hear them?"

“Excellent! Excellent! With equal faith leave your families and practice the path.”

(lit. You all, with equanimous faith, leave your homes and practice the path.)

He then observed the world with the eyes of a buddha.

In their hands they held white parasols and jeweled fans with which they shielded him from the cold and the sun.

He increased the number of entertainers in order to please him.

Two springs welled forth, one hot and one cold. These were supplied in order to bathe him. This is the constant law.

He selected beautiful women to entertain him.

“On the road he encountered an old man. It is for this reason that he is not happy.”

“For this reason I am silent and do not wish to preach the Dharma.”

The bhikṣus heard what the Buddha said.

That which you discussed...

The city governed by the king

The place where [the light of] the sun and moon do not reach.

These are the circumstances, the names, the families and the places of birth of all of the Buddhas.

At that time, the sooth-sayers addresssed the king, saying: “The child born to your highness possesses thirty-two marks.”

What have you gathered here to discuss?

At that time, the deva king Brahma knew what the Thus-C0me-One Vipaśyin was thinking.

The Buddha told the bhikṣus: "The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb where he remained concentrated and without distraction. His mother was pure of heart, without desire, not burned by the fires of lust. This is the constant law."

Bhikṣus, the most honored one is most remarkable. His divine powers are far reaching, his authority vast, to the extent that he knows how countless Buddhas of the past entered nirvana, severed the afflictions and eliminated frivlolous discourse. He also knows how many kalpas ago these Buddhas lived, their names and surnames, and the class and clan into which they were born.

(Note the use of năi 乃 as “to the extent that”).

For this reason I am silent and do not wish to preach the Dharma.

Because craving is eliminated, grasping is eliminated.

The king was named Peaceful Harmony. In accordance with the king's name, the city was named Peaceful Harmony.

Because birth is extinguished, old age, death, worry, sorrow and anxiety are extinguished.

The two do not sully each other because both are clean.

He further asked, “What is old age?” The charioteer responded, “Old age is when a lifespan nears its end and there is little life left. Therefore [when these conditions are met] one is said to be old.”

At that time, the World-Honored-One knew [what they said], but intentionally asked anyway, saying to the bhikṣus "Having gathered here, what were you discussing?”

At that time, the king, his father, asked this attendant, “When the prince went for an outing, was he happy?” He answered, “He was not happy.” The king then asked him why.

He asked “What is sickness?” The charioteer replied, “Sickness is when an assortment of pains become acute such that one cannot predict when one will die. Therefore, [when these conditions are met] one is said to be sick.”

[lit. cannot predict life or death, that is, when, in a given moment one will be alive and when dead].

Because of my compassionate heart, I explained the Four Noble Truths for them.

How could a man of intelligence hear this story and not feel joy, and not feel love and delight arise in his heart?

The prince looked at his attendant and asked, “What manner of man is this?”

Those who leave the household want to tame the intention of the mind.

The charioteer replied, “This is a śramaṇa."

Now I will speak for those who will accept my teachings with faith and are eager to hear them.

One who has these marks will take one of two paths. This is inevitable; there is no room for doubt.

If he delights in the household he will become a wheel-turning king.

I will explain the thirty-two marks. One: the feet are stable and flat, and the soles of the feet are flat and full.

He responded, “Old age is when a lifespan nears its end and there is little life left. Therefore [when these conditions are met] one is said to be old.”

At that time, his father, the king, provided him with four nannies: one was a wet-nurse, a second bathed him, a third applied fragrances, and a fourth entertained him.

At that time, the Thus-Come-One heard these words of the devas. Silently, he approved them.

The devas came and spoke to me. This is how I know of these matters.

(Note: We saw this use of năi 乃 above. Literally: … to the extent that I know of these matters.)

I must employ some expedient device so that he will stay deep inside the palace.

He traveled from kingdom to kingdom. Wherever he went, he was venerated and provided with the four necessities.

His mother was called Good Branch. His father was called Peaceful Harmony.

If he remains at home, he will become a holy, wheel-turning king who will govern the four directions under heaven.

On the road he encountered an old man. It is for this reason that he is not happy.

Encountering suffering he is not saddened; meeting with the pleasurable, he feels no joy.

He selected beautiful women to entertain him.

Once, when the Buddha was in the Flower Copse Cave in the Jeta Grove in Śrāvastī, he was together with an assembly of one thousand two-hundred fifty great bhikṣus.

The two do not sully each other because both are clean.

The charioteer, having prepared his chariot, returned, saying “Now is the time.” The prince then mounted his precious chariot and proceeded to that garden to see the sights.

In days past, soothsayers assessed the prince and said that he would leave the home. Today he is unhappy. Can it be that this is coming to pass?

(Literally: Achieved or not this?)

If I preach to the lewd, the angry or the foolish, they will not accept it.

“Sickness is when an assortment of pains become acute such that one could die at any time. Therefore, [when these conditions are met] one is said to be sick.”

This is known by the wise; it is not something that the common and stupid can attain.

His father, the king, asked the charioteer, “When the prince went on his outing, was he happy?”

The World-Honored-One announced to the bhikṣus: “I now wish to use my knowledge of past lives to speak of things related to Buddhas of the past. Do you wish to hear them?”

At this time, the Thus-Come-One was silent, thinking to himself...

At that time, his father, the king, silently thought to himself...

Thus have I heard:

Once, when the Buddha was in the Flower Copse Cave of the Jeta Garden in the kingdom of Śrāvastī, he was together with an assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty great bhikṣus. At that time, after the bhikṣus had finished begging, they gathered in the Flower Copse Hall. Discussing amongst themselves, they said: "Sage bhikṣus, the supremely-honored one is the most remarkable; his divine powers are far-reaching, his authority vast, to the extent that he knows of countless buddhas of the past who entered nirvana, cut off all afflictions and dispensed with frivolous discourse. Moreover, he knows how many kalpas ago these buddhas lived, their given names and surnames, the class and clans into which they were born, what they ate and drank, how long they lived, and the suffering and joy they experienced. Further, he knows: such was the morality of these buddhas, such was their Dharma, such their wisdom, such their understanding, in such a way did they dwell. How [does he know all this]? Oh sagely ones, it is because the Thus-Come-One is skilled in distinguishing the nature of dharmas that he knows all this, and because the devas speak to him that he knows this."

At that time, the World-Honored-One was in a quiet place. With the purity of his celestial ears he heard the bhikṣus discussing in this way. He then arose from his seat, and went to the Flower Copse Hall, approached his seat, and sat. At that time, the World-Honored-One knew what they had said, but still asked, addressing the bhikṣus, saying: "Having gathered here, what is it you are discussing?" The bhikṣus then responded in full. At that time, the World-Honored-One said to the bhikṣus: "Excellent! Excellent! With equal faith, you have left your homes to cultivate the path. In all that you practice, there are two duties: one is to speak on the Dharma with sagacity and sanctity; the other is to remain silent with sagacity and sanctity. In your discussion this is exactly how it should be. A Thus-Come-One has divine powers, and his authority is vast. I know entirely events from countless kalpas in the past. It is owing to my skill in understanding the nature of dharmas, and also because the devas come to speak to me that I know these matters."

… … He further announced to the bhikṣus: "Do you want to hear the circumstances of the buddhas of the past that a Thus-Come-One knows through his knowledge of past lives? I will explain them to you." At that time, the bhikṣus addressed him, saying, "World-Honored-One, now is the time. We joyfully hope to hear this. Excellent, World-Honored-One. Speak of this in a timely fashion, and we will honor and carry it out. "The Buddha said to the bhikṣus: "Listen carefully. Listen carefully. Think well on this. I will analyze and explain it to you." At that time, all of the bhikṣus listened to receive his teachings.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: "Ninety-one kalpas ago, there was a buddha named Vipaśyin, thus come and most true, who appeared in the world. Moreover, bhikṣus, thirty-one kalpas ago, there was a buddha named Śikhin, thus come and most true, who appeared in the world. Moreover, bhikṣus, in that time of thirty-one kalpas ago, there was a buddha called Viśvabhu, thus come and most true, who appeared in the world. Moreover, bhikṣus, in this 'sagely' kalpa ((Skt. Bhadrakalpa) there was a buddha called Krakucchanda, another called Kanakamuni, and another called Kāśyapa. I too achieved perfect, correct awakening in this 'sagely' kalpa."

You should know that in the time of the Buddha Vipaśyin, people lived lives of eighty thousand years. In the time of the Buddha Śikhin, people lived lives of seventy thousand years. In the time of the Buddha Viśvabhu, people lived lives of sixty thousand years. In the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda, people lived lives of forty thousand years. In the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni, people lived lives of thirty thousand years. In the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa people lived lives of twenty thousand years. Now, when I have appeared in the world, people live lives of one hundred years. Few exceed this number, and many do not reach it.

The Buddha Vipaśyin came from the kṣatriya class, of the surname Kauṇḍinya. The Buddha Śikhin and the Buddha Viśvabhu were in class and surname the same. The Buddha Krakucchanda came from the brahmin class, of the surname Kāśyapa. The Buddha Krakucchanda and the Buddha Kāśyapa were in class and surname the same. Today I, thus come and most true, am from the kṣatriya class, of the surname Gautama.

The Buddha Vipaśyin achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the pāṭalī tree. The Buddha Śikhin achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the puṇḍarī tree. The Buddha Viśvabhu achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the śāla tree. The Buddha Krakucchanda achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the śirīṣa tree. The Buddha Kanakamuni achieved the most correct awakening beneath the uḍumbara tree. The Buddha Kāśyapa achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the nyagrodha tree. I, today, thus come and most true, achieved the most correct awakening while seated beneath the pippala tree.

The Thus-Come-One Vipaśyin preached the Dharma for three gatherings. In the first gathering there were 168,000 disciples. In the second gathering there were 100,000 disciples. In the third gathering there were 70,000 disciples. The Thus-Come-One Śikhin also preached the Dharma for three gatherings. In the first gathering, there were 100,000 disciples. In the second gathering there were eighty-thousand disciples. In the third gathering there were 70,000 disciples. The Thus-Come-One Viśvabhu preached the Dharma to two gatherings. In the first gathering, there were 70,000 disciples. In the next gathering there were 60,000 disciples. The Thus-Come-One Krakucchanda preached the Dharma to one gathering. There were 40,000 disciples. The Thus- Come-One Kanakamuni preached the Dharma to one gathering. There were 30,000 disciples. The Thus-Come-One Kāśyapa preached the Dharma to one gathering. There were 20,000 disciples. Now I have preached the Dharma to one gathering of 1,250 disciples.

At that time, the Buddha Vipaśyin had two disciples, the first of which was named Skanda, and the second, Tiṣya. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. The Buddha Śikhin had two disciples, the first of which was named Abhibhū, and the second, Saṃbhava. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. The Buddha Viśvabhu had two disciples, the first of which was named Śroṇa, and the second, Uttama. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. The Buddha Krakucchanda had two disciples, the first of which was named Saṃjīva, and the second, Vidhūra. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. The Buddha Kanakamuni had two disciples, the first of which was named Bhujiṣya, and the second, Uttara. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. The Buddha Kāśyapa had two disciples, the first of which was named Tiṣya, and the second, Bhāradvāja. Among all of his disciples, they were foremost. Now I have two disciples, the first of which is named Śāriputra, and the second, Maudgalyāyana. Among all of my disciples, they are foremost.

The Buddha Vipaśyin had an attendant disciple. His name was Without Grief. The Buddha Śikhin had an attendant disciple. His name was Tolerant Practice. The Buddha Viśvabhu had an attendant disciple. His name was Tranquil Extinction. The Buddha Krakucchanda had an attendant disciple. His name was Well Awakened. The Buddha Kanakamuni had an attendant disciple. His name was Peaceful Harmony. The Buddha Kāśyapa had an attendant disicple. His name was Good Friend. I have an attendant disciple. His name is  nanda.

The Buddha Vipaśyin had a son. His name was Broad Shouldered. The Buddha Śikhin had a son. His name was Immeasurable. The Buddha Viśvabhu had a son. His name was Marvelous Awakening. The Buddha Krakucchanda had a son. His name was Superior. The Buddha Kanakamuni had a son. His name was Leader. The Buddha Kāśyapa had a son. His name was Gathered Army. Now I have a son. His name is Rāhula.

The father of the Buddha Vipaśyin was called Paṇḍu. He was of the kṣatriya ruling class. His mother's name was Paṇḍumatī. The city that the king governed was called Paṇḍumatī.

The father of the Buddha Śikhin was called Brightness. He was of the kṣatriya ruling class. His mother was called Radiance. The city that the king governed was called Brilliance.

The father of the Buddha Viśvabhu was called Good Lamp. He was of the kṣatriya ruling class. His mother was called Proclaim Conduct. The city that the king governed was called Without Compare.

The father of the Buddha Krakucchanda was called Sacrifice Obtained. He was of the brahmin class. His mother was called Good Branch. His father was called Peaceful Harmony. Following the king's name, the city is called Peaceful Harmony.

The father of the Buddha Kanakamuni was called Great Virtue. He was of the brahmin class. His mother was called Skilled in Victory. At that time, the king was called Clear and Pure. Following the king's name, the city was called Clear and Pure.

The father of the Buddha Kāśyapa is called Brahma Virtue. He was of the brahmin class. His mother's name was Patron. At that time, the king's name was Kikin. The city that the king governed was called Vārānasī.

My father's name is Pure Rice. He is of the kṣatriya ruling class. My mother's name was Greatly Pure and Marvelous. The name of the city my father governs is called Kapilavastu.

These are the circumstances, names, classes and places of birth of the Buddhas. What man of intelligence could hear these things and not feel happy, and not feel love and joy well up in his heart?

At that time, the World-Honored-One announced to the bhikṣus: “I will now employ my knowledge of past lives to speak of matters pertaining to the buddhas of the past. Do you wish to listen?”

The bhikṣus replied, “Now is just the time. We would be delighted to listen.”

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “Listen carefully. Listen carefully. Think well on this. I will explain it for you one by one. Bhikṣus, you should know that there is a constant law for all of the Buddhas. The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita Heaven to his mother's womb, entering from the right side. He concentrated correctly, without distraction. Precisely at that time, the earth shook and a great light shone. It illuminated the world. Even places the sun and moon do not reach were illuminated by this great light. Beings who dwelt in dark places could see one another and know which realm they were in. Presently, this light shone also on Mara's palace. The devas, Indra, Brahma, śramaṇas, brahmins and all other creatures basked in this great light. The lights in the heavens all naturally disappeared.

“Bhikṣus, you should know that there is a constant law for all of the buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was in his mother's womb, concentrated and without distraction, four celestial beings, holding halberds and spears, attended on him to protect him. No being— human or non-human—could harass him. This is the constant law.

He further said to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all of the buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita Heaven into the womb of his mother and was concentrated, without distraction, his mother was at peace, without any troubles. Her insight increased. She examined her womb and saw that the body of the bodhisattva possessed all of its organs. It was like polished red gold, without defect. It was as if a man possessed of good eyesight were to examine pure beryl, translucent on the surface and within, without the slightest obstruction. Bhikṣus, this is the constant law for all of the buddhas.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb, concentrated and without distraction, his mother's heart was pure, without lustful thoughts, unburned by the flames of passion. This is the constant law of the buddhas.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all of the Buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended in spirit from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb and was concentrated, without distraction, his mother upheld the five precepts, was celibate and pure, devout and loving, fully accomplished in all that is wholesome. She was tranquil and without fear. When her health failed and she died, she was born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.1 This is the constant law.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all of the Buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, he emerged from the right side. The earth shook, and a light shone. When he first entered the womb, all dark places were illuminated. This is the constant law.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all of the buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, he emerged from the right side, concentrated and without distraction. At the time, the bodhisattva's mother grasped a tree branch, neither sitting nor laying down. At the time, four celestial beings, with perfume in their hands, stood before the mother and said, “It is thus, your majesty: Today you have given birth to a holy child. Do not be anxious or sad.” This is the constant law.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all the buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, emerging from the right side, concentrated and without distraction, his body was pure, unsullied by impurities. It was as if a man of good vision were to toss a pure pearl onto a sheet of silk. The two do not dirty each other since both are pure. When the bodhisattva emerged from the womb, he was like this. This is a constant law.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all the buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, emerging from the right side, he was concentrated and without distraction. He emerged from the right side, fell to the ground and took seven steps, with no one to support him. He cast his gaze in the four directions, raised a hand and said, “Above and below the heavens, I am the most honored. I will save all beings from birth, old age, sickness and death.” This is a constant law.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “There is a constant law for all the Buddhas. When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, emerging from the right side, concentrated and without distraction, two springs welled forth—one warm and one cold—in order to bathe him. This is the constant law.

As soon as the prince was born, his father, the king, Paṇḍhu, assembled soothsayers and other masters of the esoteric arts, ordering them to examine the prince to make his fortune known. Presently, the soothsayers obeyed his command and examined the prince. They approached him and, pulling aside his robe, saw that he possessed all of the marks. They told his fortune, saying: “One who has these marks will achieve one of two destinies, most certainly, without doubt. If he remains in the home, he will become a wheel-turning king, and rule all under heaven in the four directions. He will possess the fourfold army. He will rule with the correct Dharma without prejudice. His benevolence will spread to all under Heaven. The seven treasures will arrive on their own. He will have a thousand sons, brave and strong. He will subdue his enemies. He will have no need for weapons. All under Heaven will achieve great peace. If he leaves his home to pursue the path, he will achieve correct awakening, and possess the ten epithets.” Presently, the soothsayers addressed the king, adding, “The boy born to the king has thirty-two marks. He will follow one of two destinies most certainly and without doubt. If he remains at home he will be a wheel-turning, holy king. If he leaves the home he will achieve correct awakening and possess the ten epithets.”

At this time, his father, the king, earnestly entreated the soothsayers again and again, saying: “Look once more at the thirty-two marks of the prince. What are they called?” At that time, the soothsayers pulled back the prince's robe and explained the thirty-two marks. The first is that his feet are sure and level, their soles flat and full, so that his step is steady. The second is that there are wheels on the soles of his feet, complete with a thousand spokes that reflect light on each other. The third is that his hands and feet are webbed, like those of the king of the geese.

The fourth is that his hands and feet are soft like the garment of a deva. The fifth is that his fingers and toes are slender—none can match them in length. The sixth is that his heels are full —one can look on them endlessly. The seventh is that he has the limbs of a deer—straight from top to bottom. The eighth is that his bones are interlocking, like a chain. The ninth is that his penis is retractable, like that of a horse. The tenth is that, when he stands upright with his hands at his sides, they reach beyond his knees.

The eleventh is that one hair sprouts from each pore, each one turning to the right, the color of deep brown beryl. The twelfth is that his hair, turning right and dark brown, faces upward. The thirteenth is that his body is the color of gold. The fourteenth is that his skin is soft—dust and dirt to not adhere to it. The fifteenth is that his shoulders are even, full and complete. The sixteenth is that there is a swastika on his chest. The seventeenth is that he is in stature twice as tall as other men. The eighteenth is that his “seven places” are level and full.

The nineteenth is that his body is as tall as it is wide, like the nyagrodha tree.² The twentieth is that his jowls are like those of a lion. The twenty-first is that his chest is square, like that of a lion. The twenty-second is that he has forty teeth. The twenty-third is that his teeth are square and even. The twenty-fourth is that there is no space between his teeth. The twenty-fifth is that his teeth are white and sparkling. The twenty-sixth is that his throat is pure; any flavor that he eats tastes appropriately. The twenty-seventh is that his tongue is wide and long; with it he can reach to his right and left ears. The twenty-eighth is that his voice is crisp and clear. The twentyninth is that his eyes are pitch black. The thirtieth is that his eyes are like those of the king of the oxen; he can blink from both the top and the bottom of the eye. The thirty-first is that between his eyebrows there is a white hair, soft, fine and moist. When pulled taught, it is a full xun (eight feet) long; when released it coils up, turning to the right until it looks like a pearl. The thirtysecond is that on the top of his head there is a fleshy topknot. These are the thirty-two marks.

The Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, all of the devas were above, in the air, holding white parasols and jeweled fans to shield him from the cold, heat, wind, rain and dust."

At that time, his father, the king, supplied him with four nannies: one was a wet nurse, a second was in charge of bathing him, a third to perfume him, and the fourth for entertainment. They raised him cheerfully, without tire.

When he was a child, the men and women of the entire kingdom looked upon him tirelessly.

When he was a child, the men and women all coddled him as if they were gazing on a precious flower.

When the bodhisattva was born, his eyes did not blink. This is like it is in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. Because he did not blink, he was called Vipaśyin.

When the bodhisattva was born, his voice was clear and crisp, soft and elegant; like the sound of the kalaviṅka bird.

When the bodhisattva was born, his vision was penetrating, such that he could see for a yojana.

After the bodhisattva was born, over the years he gradually grew up. In the main hall of the king, he preached according to the path. His benevolence reached to the common people, and his fame and virtue spread far and wide.

At that time, the bodhisattva wanted to go on an outing. He told his driver to prepare his jeweled chariot and take him to the garden for an outing. The driver, having prepared the chariot, returned and said, "It is now time." The prince then mounted the jeweled chariot and went out to the garden for a look. On the road he saw an old man. His hair was white and his teeth missing. His face was wrinkled and his body stooped. He leaned on a staff and walked feebly, panting as he moved. The prince looked at his attendant and asked "What manner of man is this?" The charioteer replied, "This is an old man." Then the prince asked, "What is it to be old?" The charioteer replied: "Old age is when the life-span nears its end and little life remains. This is what we call old age." The prince asked further, "Will I also become like this, unable to avoid this horror?" He replied, "It is so. Birth is necessarily followed by old age. There is no distinction between the high and low born." Thereupon, the prince, sad and despondent, told his attendant to take the chariot back to the palace. Quietly there he reflected, thinking on the suffering of old age: "I too will experience this."

At that time, his father, the king, asked the attendant: “The prince went on an outing. Is he happy?” He replied, “He is not.” The king then asked why. He replied, “On the road he met an old man. It is for this reason that he is unhappy.” At that time, his father, the king, thought silently to himself, “Long ago the soothsayers read the marks of the prince and said that he would leave the household. Today he is not happy. Has it all not come to pass? I must take measures to keep him deep inside the palace. The entertainments that appeal to the five desires will gladden his heart, and keep him from leaving the home.” He then adorned the palace buildings and selected beautiful women to entertain the prince.

Moreover, at a later time, the prince once more ordered his charioteer to prepare for an outing. On the road, they encountered a sick man. His body weak and his belly distended, his face was black. He lay alone amongst refuse. No one looked at him. His illness was severe and his pain acute; he could not speak. The prince turned to his charioteer and said, “What manner of man is this?” He answered, “This is a sick man.” The prince asked “What is it to be sick?” He answered, “Sickness is when all manner of pain presses upon one, and death could come at any time. This is called sickness.” The prince said, “Will I also be like that, unable to avoid this horror?” The charioteer replied, “It is so. If one is born then one becomes sick, without distinction of noble and mean birth.” Thereupon, the prince was despondent and unhappy. He then told his charioteer to turn around the chariot and return to the palace. Quietly reflecting to himself, he thought of the suffering of sickness: “I too will experience this.”

At that time, his father, the king, asked the charioteer: “The prince went on an outing. Is he happy?” He answered, “He is not.” The king asked him why and the charioteer replied, “On the road he encountered a sick man and for this reason he is unhappy.” Thereupon his father, the king, reflected silently to himself, “Long ago the soothsayers interpreted the prince's marks and said he would leave the home. Now he is unhappy. Could it all be coming to pass? I must take measures to increase the performers in order to gladden his heart and keep him from leaving the home.” He then ornamented the buildings of the palace and selected beautiful women to entertain the prince.

At another time, the prince again ordered his charioteer to prepare his carriage for an outing. On the road they encountered a dead man. He was surrounded by multi-colored banners before and behind him. His family, relatives and neighbors wept and wailed, sending him out of the city. The prince again asked him, "What manner of man is this?" He replied, "This is a dead man." The prince asked, "What is it to be dead?" He replied, "Death is the end. First the wind (breath) gives out, followed by fire (warmth). All of the organs fail and the living and the dead go their separate ways, as one departs from home and family. This is called death." The prince asked his charioteer, "Will I also be like this, unable to avoid this horror?" He answered, "Yes. With life there must be death, without distinction between high and low birth." Thereupon, the prince was despondent and unhappy. He then told his charioteer to turn the chariot around and return to the palace. Quietly, he reflected to himself, thinking of the suffering of death: "I too will experience this."

At that time, his father, the king, asked the charioteer: “The prince went on an outing. Is he happy?” He replied, “He is not.” When he king asked why, the charioteer replied, “On the road he came upon a dead man. For this reason he is not happy. Thereupon his father, the king, reflected to himself: “Long ago, the soothsayers interpreted the prince's marks, saying that he would leave the home. Today he is unhappy. Is it all coming to pass? I will take measures, increasing the number of his entertainers to gladden his heart and keep him from leaving the home.” He then adorned the buildings of the palace, and selected beautiful women to entertain the prince.

On another occasion, the prince ordered his charioteer to go on an outing. On the road he came upon a śramaṇa who wore religious clothing and carried an alms bowl, looking at the ground as he walked. The prince then asked his charioteer, “What manner of man is this?” The charioteer replied, “This is a śramaṇa.” The prince asked, “What is a śramaṇa?" He replied, “A śramaṇa is one who abandons tenderness and love, leaving his home to cultivate the path. Mastering his sense organs, he is not tainted by eternal desires. Showing kindness for all, he harms nothing. Encountering suffering, he feels no distress; encountering the pleasurable, he takes no delight in it. His tolerance is like that of the earth. This is what is called a śramaṇa." The prince said, “Excellent. This path is true and correct. Cut off forever from the burdens of the world, it is marvelously pure. Only this is happiness.” He then ordered the charioteer to turn the chariot around and approach the śramaṇa.

At that time, the prince asked the śramaṇa, "You shave off your hair and beard, wear religious clothing and carry an alms bowl. What do you seek?” The śramaṇa replied, “One who leaves the home wants to tame his mind, forever leave filth behind, and nurture all beings with kindness. Nothing bothers him. Modest and serene, he devotes himself only to the path.” The prince said, “Excellent. This path is most true.” Presently, he ordered his charioteer, “Take my precious garments and my chariot. Return and inform the great king. I then will shave off my hair and beard here, don the three religious robes, leave the household and cultivate the path. The reason I do this is because I want to tame my mind, leave behind dust and filth, and be pure and selfreliant in my pursuit of the arts of the path.” Thereupon, the charioteer took the precious chariot that the prince rode and his clothes, and returned to his father, the king. The prince, after this, shaved his hair and beard, donned the three religious robes, left his home and cultivated the path.

The Buddha told the bhikṣus: “The prince saw an old man and a sick man, and learned of the suffering and troubles of the world. Then he saw a dead man, and his attachment to the world ceased. When he saw the śramaṇa he had an expansive, great awakening. When he dismounted his precious chariot, in the steps that he took, he gradually distanced himself from attachments. This is truly to leave the home. This is truly to cut oneself off. At that time, when the people of that kingdom heard that the prince had shaved off his hair and beard, donned religious clothing and carried an alms bowl, leaving his home to cultivate the path, they all said to one another, "This path must be true, since it has caused the prince to abandon his prestigious position in the kingdom, and to cast aside all that he valued." Thereupon, 84,000 people in the kingdom went to the prince, asking to become his disciple, to leave the home and to cultivate the path.

Thereupon, the prince accepted them and wandered with them, teaching wherever he went, from village to village, from kingdom to kingdom. In each place he arrived in he was respected by all. They made offerings to him of the “four necessities.” The bodhisattva thought: “I am together with a great multitude, traveling to various kingdoms. The hubbub of the world of men does not suit me. When will I be able to leave this crowd and, in a tranquil place, pursue the path and the truth?” Presently, his wish was fulfilled: in a tranquil place, he concentrated and cultivated the path. Once more, he thought, “The many beings are to be pitied. They dwell forever in darkness. The bodies they receive are fragile. They experience birth, old age, sickness and death. All manner of suffering amasses. They die here to be born there, and from there are born here. Following on this bundle of suffering, they circulate [through samsara] without end. When will I understand this bundle of suffering and eliminate birth, old age and death?”

Again he thought: “Where do life and death come from? What causes them to exist?” Then, with insight, he examined their origin: “From birth there is old age and death; birth is the cause of old age and death. Birth arises from being; being is the cause of birth. Being arises from grasping; grasping is the cause of being. Grasping arises from craving; craving is the cause of grasping. Craving arises from sensation; sensation is the cause of craving. Sensation arises from contact; contact is the cause of sensation. Contact arises from the 'six entrances'; the 'six entrances' are the cause of contact. The 'six entrances' arise from name and form; name and form are the cause of the 'six entrances.' Name and form arise from consciousness; consciousness is the cause of name and form. Consciousness arises from dispositions; dispositions are the cause of consciousness. Dispositions arise from ignorance; ignorance is the cause of dispositions.

That is to say: Following from ignorance there are dispositions; following from dispositions there is consciousness; following from consciousness there is name and form; following from name and form there are the 'six entrances'; following from the 'six entrances' there is contact; following contact there is sensation; following sensation there is craving; following craving there is grasping; following grasping there is being; following being there is birth; following birth there is old age, sickness, death, worry, sorrow, pain, and vexation. This suffering forms a great mass that comes to exist with birth. This is the accumulation of suffering.” When the bodhisattva reflected on the origin of the mass of suffering, he produced knowledge, vision, perception, clarification, understanding, wisdom and realization.

Thereupon the bodhisattva reflected to himself, “Through what type of ceasing would old age and death cease? Through what type of extinction would old age and death be extinguished?” Then, with insight he examined their source: If birth ceased there would be no old age and no death. If birth were extinguished old age and death would be extinguished. If there is no being, there is no birth; if being is extinguished, birth is extinguished. If there is no grasping, being is extinguished; if grasping is extinguished, being is extinguished. If there is no craving, there is no grasping. When craving is extinguished, grasping is extinguished. Without sensation, there is no craving; when sensation is extinguished, craving is extinguished. Without contact, there is no sensation; when contact is extinguished, sensation is extinguished. Without the 'six entrances' there is no contact; when the 'six entrances' are extinguished, contact is extinguished. Without name and form, there are no 'six entrances'; when name and form are extinguished, the 'six entrances' are extinguished. Without consciousness, there is no name or form; when consciousness is extinguished, name and form are extinguished. Without dispositions, there is no consciousness; when the dispositions are extinguished, consciousness is extinguished. Without ignorance, there are no dispositions; when ignorance is extinguished, the dispositions are extinguished.

That is to say: When ignorance is extinguished the dispositions are extinguished. When the dispositions are extinguished, consciousness is extinguished. When consciousness is extinguished, name and form are extinguished. When name and form are extinguished, the 'six entrances' are extinguished. When the 'six entrances' are extinguished, contact is extinguished. When contact is extinguished, sensation is extinguished. When sensation is extinguished, craving is extinguished. When craving is extinguished, grasping is extinguished. When grasping is extinguished, being is extinguished. When being is extinguished, birth is extinguished. When birth is extinguished, old age, death, worry, sorry, pain and vexation are extinguished.” When the bodhisattva reflected on the extinction of the mass of suffering, he produced wisdom, vision, perception, understanding, penetration, insight and realization. At that time, the bodhisattva contemplated the twelve-fold chain of causation backwards and forwards. He knew it truthfully. He saw it truthfully. Thereupon, there on his seat, he achieved anuttarasamyaksambodhi.

When the Buddha Vipaśyin had just completed the path, he mostly practiced two types of contemplation: one is called the contemplation of serenity; the second is called the contemplation of separation.

The Buddha Vipaśyin in a secluded, tranquil place thought as follows: "Today I have attained this supreme Dharma. It is profoundly subtle, difficult to understand, difficult to see. Extinguished and pure, it is known by the wise, and not something the foolish can attain. The reason for this is that beings have different degrees of tolerance, different views, different sensations, different levels of education. And according to their different views, each delights in his own pursuits, each devotes himself to his own customs. Hence, on account of these profound conditions, they cannot understand. Yet, if they want to completely achieve nirvana, it is twice as difficult to know. If I were to eplain it, they most certainly would not understand. Moreover, it would be bothersome to me." Having thought this he was then silent and did not preach the Dharma.

At the time, King Brahmadeva knew what the Thus-Come-One Vipaśyin was thinking. He then reflected to himself: "Thinking that this world is corrupt, sad and pitiful, Vipaśyin Buddha knows this profoundly marvelous Dharma, yet does not want to preach it." As quickly as a strong man flexes an arm, he came suddenly down from the Brahma palace, stood before the Buddha, paid reverence, touching his forehead to the Buddha's feet, and withdrew to one side. Then, King Brahma knelt with his right knee to the ground, pressed his palms together with fingers interlaced³ and addressed the Buddha, saying: "I hope only that the World-Honored-One will preach the Dharma in a timely fashion. The beings of today are only slightly tainted. Their faculties are sharp. They are reverential and easily taught. They fear sins that cannot be redeemed in a future life. They can destroy evil teaching and give rise to the good path."

The Buddha told King Brahma: “Just so, just so. It is as you have said. However, when I was in a tranquil place, I thought to myself, 'The true Dharma that I have attained is profoundly subtle. If I explain it to them, they will no doubt fail to understand it, and this will be bothersome to me.' Hence I was silent, not wishing to preach the Dharma. For countless asaṃkhya kalpas I have been diligent, without rest, cultivating the highest practice. Only now have I acquired this Dharma that is so difficult to attain. If I explain it for the lustful, angry, ignorant multitude, they will certainly not be able to accept it. I will tire myself pointlessly. This Dharma is subtle, and at odds with the world. The multitude is stained by desire; the foolish are blanketed by darkness. They cannot believe or understand it. King Brahma, on observing these things, I remained for this reason silent, not wanting to preach the Dharma.”

Presently, King Brahma again entreated the Buddha, sincerely and devoutly, repeatedly saying: “World-Honored-One, if you do not preach the Dharma, today our world will fall to ruins. What a great pity this would be. I only hope that the World-Honored-One will explain the Dharma in a timely fashion, and not allow the multitude to fall to other destinies.” At that time, the World- Honored-One listened repeatedly to the earnest entreaties of King Brahma, and with his Buddha eye observed the creatures of the world. He saw that they were tainted to lesser and greater degrees, that the faculties of some were sharp and others dull, that some were hard to teach and others easy. Those who are easy to teach fear committing sins that will affect them in later lives. They can eliminate evil and produce good. It is like the utpala flower, the padma flower, the kumuda flower and the puṇḍarīka flower. Some emerge from the mud but do not reach the surface of the water. Some emerge from the mud and are level with the surface of the water. Some rise above the water, but have yet to blossom. Yet none are stained by the water, and all can be easily opened. The multitudes of the world are like this.

At that time, the World-Honored-One said to King Brahma: “I love you all. Now I will expound the doctrine that is sweet dew. This Dharma is profound and marvelous. I will speak to those who believe, those who are receptive and glad to listen. I will not speak to those who would be troubled by it and derive no benefit from it.

At that time, when King Brahma learned that the Buddha had accepted his invitation he was overjoyed. Circumambulating the Buddha three times, he paid reverence, touching his forehead to the Buddha's feet. In an instant, Brahma disappeared. Not long after he had departed, the Thus-Come-One reflected: “To whom should I preach the Dharma first?” Then he thought to himself, “I will enter the city of Paṇḍhu, and expound the sweet dew doctrine first to the prince Tiṣya and to the great minister Skanda.” Thereupon, the World-Honored-One, in the time it takes a strong man to flex an arm, disappeared from the tree of enlightenment, and arrived before king Paṇḍhu in the city of Paṇḍhu. There, in Deer Park, he put out his seat and sat down.

The Buddha Vipaśyin said to the park guard: “You can enter the city and say to Prince Tiṣya and the great minister Skanda, 'Do you know that the Buddha Vipaśyin is right now in Deer Park? He wants to see you. You should know that now is the time.'” The guard of the park then received these instructions and carried them out. He went to the place where the two men were and conveyed all that the Buddha had told him. When the two men heard this, they went to the place where the Buddha was, and, paying reverence by touching their foreheads to his feet, withdrew to sit to one side. The Buddha systematically explained the Dharma, demonstrating the benefit and joy of his teachings. He gave discourses on charity, discourses on morality, and discourses on how to be born in the heavens, on how the evils of desire are unclean and how valuing afflictions is a calamity. He extolled separation as the most subtle and pure.

At that time, the World-Honored-One saw these two men, how their hearts were tender, how blissful, faithful and happy they were, and deemed them capable of receiving the correct Dharma. Thereupon, he spoke on the sacred truth of suffering, expounding and explaining it. He then proclaimed and interpreted the sacred truth of the origin of suffering, the sacred truth of the extinction of suffering, and the essential truth of the release from suffering.

At that time, Prince Tiṣya and the great minister Skanda, right where they were sitting, departed far away from defilements and obtained the “purity of the eye of the Dharma,” just as plain fabric easily absorbs dye. At this time, the god of the earth sang out these words: “The Thus- Come-One Vipaśyin in Deer Park in the city of Paṇḍhu has 'turned the wheel' of the highest Dharma—the wheel that neither śramaṇas, brahmins, devas, Mara, Brahma or other people of the world can turn.” In this way, the sound of the god spreads, his voice reaching the four deva kings, even up to the Heaven of Those Who Have Mastery Over the Creation of Others. And in no time at all, his voice reached the Brahma Heaven.

Presently, Prince Tiṣya and the Great Minister Skandha had insight into the Dharma and obtained its fruits. True and without deception, they achieved fearlessness. They then addressed the Buddha Vipaśyin, saying: “We want to carry out pure religious practices from within the Dharma of the Thus-Come-One.” The Buddha said, “Welcome, bhikṣus. My Dharma is pure and unimpeded. Through cultivating it you can cross to the end of suffering.” At that time, both obtained the complete precepts. Shortly after receiving the complete precepts, the Thus-Come- One demonstrated three things to them: the first was his supernormal powers, the second his ability to read minds, and the third his ability to instruct. They then obtained the liberation of the untainted minds and the insight that leaves no doubt about life or death.

At that time, the many people in the city of Paṇḍhu heard that these two men had left the home to study the path, wear Dharma robes, carry alms bowls and in purity carry out religious practices. They said to one another, “His path is certainly true if it is such that he causes these men to cast aside worldly honors and abandon that which they had valued.” Presently, 84,000 people of the city went to Deer park, to the place where the Buddha Vipaśyin was. They paid reverence to him, touching their foreheads to his feet before withdrawing to sit to one side. The Buddha systematically preached the Dharma, showing them the profit and joy of his teachings. He delivered discourses on charity, morality and on how to be born in one of the heavens, on how the evils of desire are impure and on the calamity of valuing defilements. He praised the wonders of detachment as the most pure.

At that time, the World-Honored-One looked upon this great multitude, their hearts tender, filled with joy, faith and happiness, and receptive to the correct Dharma. Thereupon, for their sake he spoke on the sacred truth of suffering, expounding and explaining it. He proclaimed and interpreted the sacred truth of the origins of suffering, the sacred truth of the cessation of suffering and the essential truth of release from suffering.

At the time, 84,000 people, right from their seats, distanced themselves from filth and obtained the purity of the Dharma eye, like a plain fabric easily absorbs dye. They saw the Dharma and obtained its fruits, truly and without deception. They achieved a state of fearlessness. They then addressed the Buddha, saying: “We want, from within the Dharma of the Thus-Come-One, to carry out religious practices with purity.” The Buddha said, “Welcome, bhikṣus. My Dharma is pure and unimpeded. Cultivate it to reach the end of suffering.” At the time, the 84,000 people obtained the complete precepts. Shortly after receiving the complete precepts, the World- Honored-One instructed them in three things: the first was supernormal powers; the second, reading minds; the third, instruction itself. They obtained undefiled liberation, and insight into life and death without doubt came to them.

84,000 people heard that, in the Deer Park, the Buddha turned the wheel of the supreme Dharma, a teaching that śramaṇas, brahmins, the devas, Mara, Brahma and other people of the world cannot turn. They then went to the city of Paṇḍhu to the place of the Buddha Vipaśyin. Showing reverence by touching their foreheads to his feet, they withdrew to sit at the side.

At this time, the Buddha preached the Dharma to them in the same way.

At that time, in the city of Paṇḍhu there was an assembly of 168,000 great bhikṣus. Tiṣya bhikṣu and Skandha bhikṣu rose up into the air above the crowd, emitting fire and water from their bodies and manifesting an assortment of miracles, at the same time preaching the marvelous dharma for the multitude. At that time, the Thus-Come-One silently reflected: “Today there is an assembly of 168,000 great bhikṣus in the city. I should send them out to wander, each traveling with a partner to go from place to place. After six years, let them return to the city to recite the complete precepts.

At the time, the devas of Śuddhāvāsa learned of the intention of the Thus-Come-One. As quickly as a strong man flexes an arm, they disappeared from that heaven and all at once arrived, coming before the World-Honored-One, reverencing themselves by touching their foreheads to his feet and then withdrawing to one side. After a moment, they addressed the Buddha, saying; “Thus it is World-Honored-One. There are many bhikṣus in the assembly here in the city of Paṇḍhu. It is right that they should be sent out to wander from place to place, after six years returning to this city to recite the complete precepts. We will protect them, and assist them, even before they ask us for help. At that time, the Thus-Come-One heard the words of these devas and silently assented.

Presently, seeing that the Buddha had silently approved, the devas of Śuddhāvāsa prostrated themselves at the Buddha's feet and, all at once, disappeared to return to their heaven. Not long after they had gone, the Buddha announced to the bhikṣus: “Today in this city there is an assembly of many bhikṣus. It is right that you should disperse to wander and preach. After six years, you should return here to gather to recite the precepts.” Then, having received these instructions from the Buddha, the bhikṣus took up their robes and bowls, paid reverence, touching their foreheads to the feet of the Buddha, and left.

In time, the devas of Śuddhāvāsa Heaven a year later announced to all of the bhikṣus: “You have now wandered for over a year. Five years remain. You should know that when six years have passed you are to return to the city to recite the precepts.” In this way they reached the sixth year. The devas then announced: “It is a full six years. You should return to recite the precepts.” At the time, having heard what the devas said, the bhikṣus, robes and bowls in hand, returned to the city of Paṇḍhu. Arriving at the place of the Buddha Vipaśyin in the Deer Park, they touched their foreheads to his feet and retreated to one side.

At that time, the Thus-Come-One rose up into the air before the great assembly. Seated with legs crossed in the lotus posture, he delivered the scriptures on the precepts, placing tolerance foremost. The Buddha explained that nirvana is the ultimate and that a śramaṇa should not simply shave his head and then bring harm to others. Now at that time the devas of Śuddhāvāsa Heaven were not far from the Buddha.

At that time, the World-Honored-One announced to the bhikṣus: “I recall, long ago, at one time on the mountain of Gṛdhrakūṭa by the city of Rājagraha I had this thought, 'I have been born in every place there is, with the exception of the Śuddhāvāsa heavens. If I had been born there, then I would not have returned here.' At the time, bhikṣus, I further had this thought, “I want to go to the Heaven that is Not Created (Avṛha, one of the five Śuddhāvāsas).' Then, in the time it takes a strong man to flex an arm, I disappeared from the mountain and appeared in that heaven. At the time, the devas, seeing me arrive there, touched their foreheads to my feet and paid reverence, standing to one side. They addressed me, saying 'We are the disciples of the Thus-Come-One Vipaśyin. We were taught by that Buddha and that is why we came to be born here. He fully explained the circumstances of that Buddha from start to finish. Also, the Buddhas Śikhin, Viśvabhu, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa and [you] Śākyamuni have all been our teachers.⁴ We have received instruction from them and for this reason have come to be born here.' They also explained all of the circumstances of the various Buddhas from start to finish. I also went among the devas born in Akaniṣṭha Heaven where the same thing happened.”

The Buddha had explained the great matters of this scripture. The bhikṣus, having heard what the Buddha said, happily carried out his teachings.