Introduction to the texts
The first passage is from what became, arguably, the most influential abhidharma text in East Asia, the
Abhidharmakośa translated by Xuanzang in the seventh century (T 1558). The passage here discusses the
problem of whether or not the wardens of hell are sentient beings. The second passage, also on the topic of
whether or not hell wardens are sentient beings, is from the Abhidharmavibhāṣāśāstra, translated by
Buddhavarman in the fifth century. It is almost identical to the first passage, but with slightly different
wording. The third passage, again from the Abhidharmakośa, tackles the problem of whether or not hell
beings are capable of creating bad karma. The fourth passage takes us out of hell to address the troubling
question of whether or not rebirth presupposes the existence of an enduring self.
The Abhidharmakośa, generally taken to represent Sarvāstivādin positions, has been widely read by elite
monks in China and in the rest of East Asia first in Paramārtha's translation (T 1558) completed in the sixth
century, and then, from the seventh century on, in Xuánzàng's translation.
The stylistic conventions of Abhidharma are different from what we have seen so far. Doctrinal problems are
raised for discussion, often based either on what appear to be inconsistencies in a given doctrine, or in
contradictions between different texts. Abhidharma texts usually present both sides of an argument, at the
same time presenting both objections to the arguments and defenses against these objections.
According to tradition, the Abhidharmakośa was compiled by Vasubandhu in approximately the early fifth
century. In addition to the two Chinese translations of the Kośa we sample from here, there is also a Tibetan
translation and a Sanskrit version. Xuánzàng's translation was translated into French by Louis de la Vallée
Poussin, published between 1923 and 1931. Leo M. Pruden completed an English translation of this work (that
is, from the French). But since the Sanskrit version of the text was discovered (in Tibet) only in 1934, it was
not incorporated into Poussin's notes.
Passage 1: Are the hell wardens sentient beings?
Vocabulary
| 阿毘達磨 |
āpídámó |
(Skt.) abhidharma |
| 俱舍 |
jùshè |
(Skt.) kośa |
| 論 |
lùn |
treatise (Skt. śāstra) |
Are the hell wardens sentient beings? §1
Vocabulary
| 有情 |
yǒuqíng |
sentient being |
| 業力 |
yèlì |
power of karma |
| 劫風 |
jiéfēng |
wind of the kalpa (a great wind is one of the forces that leads to the formation of a world system during the long period (kalpa) in which the world system takes shape. ) |
| 通 |
tōng |
understand; explain |
| 大德 |
dàdé |
One of Great Virtue (term of respect for monks, from Skt. bhadanta) |
| 法善現 |
Fǎshànxiàn |
Dharmasubhūti. (This monk is quoted elsewhere in the Abhidharmakośa, but remains obscure. This may be another name for Aśvaghoṣa).4 |
| 好 |
hào |
to like, to delight in (contrast with hǎo, meaning “good”). |
| 他 |
tā |
other (distinguish from modern meaning of “him or he”) |
| 欣悅 |
xīnyuè |
to be pleased, delighted, happy |
| 琰魔 |
Yǎnmó |
Yama (personal name: the ruler of the hells) |
| 卒 |
zú |
foot-soldier |
4. References in Louis de la Vallée Poussin (Leo M. Pruden trans.), Abhidharmakośa Bhāṣyam (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press,
1991), p.534, fn.411.
Are the hell wardens sentient beings? §2
Vocabulary
| 邏剎娑 |
luóchàsuō |
(Skt.) rakṣasa, demon |
Are the hell wardens sentient beings? §3
Vocabulary
| 異熟 |
yìshú |
(Skt. vipāka), maturation; retribution |
| 即 |
jí |
then, next |
| 尚 |
shàng |
even |
| 容 |
róng |
to allow, permit |
| 無間 |
wújiān |
unremitting sins (five kinds of evil acts that lead to rebirth in the Unremitting Hell) |
| 感 |
gǎn |
to inspire, to cause; to move |
| 理 |
lǐ |
reason, principle |
| 遮 |
zhē |
objection, refutation |
| 隔礙 |
géài |
obstacle, obstruction |
| 大種 |
dàzhǒng |
lit. “great seeds”; the four elements, physical constitution |
(CBETA, T29, no. 1558, p. 58, c18-p. 59, a17)
Passage 2: A parallel passage on the status of the wardens
A parallel passage on the status of the wardens: §1
Vocabulary
| 毘婆沙 |
pípóshā |
(Skt.) vibhāṣā; alternative, different interpretation |
| 曇摩須菩提 |
Tánmóxūpútí |
Dharmasubhūti (above his name is translated as 法善現; this is a transliteration) |
| 偈 |
jì |
gāthā, verse |
| 剛強 |
gāngqiáng |
tough and strong |
| 瞋恚 |
chēnhuì |
hatred; malice |
| 閻羅 |
Yánluó |
Yama |
A parallel passage on the status of the wardens: §2
Vocabulary
| 數 |
shù |
number; to be among the number, to belong to the category of |
| 無間業 |
wújiānyè |
unremitting karma (punishment for committing one of the five sins leading to Unremitting Hell). |
| 善根 |
shàngēn |
wholesome roots (a metaphor for goodness) |
| 增上 |
zēngshàng |
to increase |
| 邪見 |
xiéjiàn |
false views |
| 況 |
kuàng |
how much more… |
| 像 |
xiàng |
image; appearance |
A parallel passage on the status of the wardens: §3
Vocabulary
| 文 |
wén |
literary; literature |
| 得 |
dé |
gains |
| 失 |
shī |
losses |
| 鎖 |
suǒ |
chains |
| 繫縛 |
xìfú |
to bind |
| 詣 |
yì |
to go to |
| 所 |
suǒ |
place, location |
A parallel passage on the status of the wardens: §4
Vocabulary
| 聖語 |
shèngyǔ |
sacred language; Sanskrit |
| 打 |
dǎ |
to hit, to strike |
| 棒 |
bàng |
baton, stick |
| 裂 |
liè |
split |
(CBETA, T28, no. 1546, p. 48, a5-25)
Passage 3: Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma?
Another characteristic of Abhidharmic writing is the enthusiasm of its authors for categorization and
lists, as illustrated in the following passages on the types of sins that can be committed in hell, which
focuses on a common list of ten types of sin: murder, theft, debauchery, deception, flattery, insult,
slander, coveting, anger, and holding false views.
Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma? §1
Vocabulary
| 不善十業 |
búshàn shíyè |
the ten types of bad karma; ten types of unwholesome behavior |
| 那落迦 |
nàluòjiā |
(Skt.) naraka, hell |
| 通 |
tōng |
to work, to be possible |
| 二種 |
èrzhǒng |
two types (here, as explained below: incipient, and carried out) |
| 麁惡 |
cūè |
crass, vile (vile language, one of the ten types of unwholesome behavior) |
| 雜穢 |
záhuì |
unclean, low, vulgar (another of the ten types) |
| 現行 |
xiànxíng |
manifest |
| 成就 |
chéngjiù |
accomplished, completed |
Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma? §2
Vocabulary
| 罵 |
mà |
to insult, to curse |
| 𢤱悷 |
lǒnglì |
unruly, obstreperous |
| 調 |
tiáo |
to moderate, to tame |
| 憎 |
zēng |
to hate, to despise |
| 瞋恚 |
chēnhuì |
hostility, anger (one of the ten types) |
Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma? §3
Vocabulary
| 貪 |
tān |
greed (one of the ten types) |
| 邪見 |
xiéjiàn |
false views (one of the ten types) |
| 行 |
xíng |
to carry out, to enact |
| 境 |
jìng |
realm, world; object of |
| 現見 |
xiànjiàn |
to see directly, immediately apparent |
Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma? §4
Vocabulary
| 攝 |
shè |
to gather, to amass |
| 財物 |
cáiwù |
wealth, possessions |
| 不與取 |
bùyǔqǔ |
taking that which has not been given (one of the ten types of unwholesome behavior) |
| 欲邪行 |
yùxiéxíng |
indulging in sensual pleasures (one of the ten types) |
Are beings in hell capable of creating bad karma? §5
Vocabulary
| 虛誑語 |
xūkuángyǔ |
false speech (one of the ten types) |
| 常離 |
chánglí |
permanent separation, constant isolation |
| 離間語 |
líjiānyǔ |
slander |
(CBETA, T29, no. 1558, p. 90, a20-b8; Poussin pp.666-67).
Passage 4: Does rebirth presuppose the existence of an enduring self?
Does rebirth presuppose the existence of an enduring self? §1
Vocabulary
| 補特伽羅 |
bǔtèjiāló |
(Skt.) pudgala, individual, person |
| 阿誰 |
āshuí |
who |
| 流轉 |
liúzhuǎn |
to transmigrate, to circulate |
| 薄伽梵 |
bójiāfàn |
(Skt.) bhagavat, blessed one |
| 契經 |
qìjīng |
scriptures |
| 捨 |
shě |
to cast aside, to abandon |
| 蘊 |
yùn |
aggregate (Skt. skandha) |
| 義宗 |
yìzōng |
doctrine |
| 前 |
qián |
previously |
| 徵遣 |
zhēngqiǎn |
dealt with (Hirakawa reconstructs 前已徵遣 as uktottara) |
Does rebirth presuppose the existence of an enduring self? §2
Vocabulary
| 燎 |
liáo |
to burn |
| 原 |
yuán |
prairie, plateau |
| 剎那 |
chànà |
(Skt.) kṣaṇa, a moment, an instant |
| 續 |
xù |
to continue |
| 聚 |
jù |
to gather |
| 假 |
jiǎ |
provisional |
Does rebirth presuppose the existence of an enduring self? §3
Vocabulary
| 世導師 |
shìdǎoshī |
guide of the world (i.e. a buddha) |
| 妙眼 |
Miàoyǎn |
(Skt. Sunetra) lit. Marvelous Eye |
| 咎 |
jiù |
mistake, wrong |
(CBETA, T29, no. 1558, p. 156, c2-p. 157, c24; Poussin, p.1337)